Uncategorized – Under the Microscope

October 27, 2017October 27, 2017 intentionalac Medical Microbiology, Uncategorized

#MicroMatters – Monkeypox

Recent reports of suspected cases of monkeypox virus in some regions of Nigeria has brought this little known about virus into the spotlight. In this article, Obabiyi Ajao & Amara Anyogu discuss current knowledge about the disease caused by this virus and the reported outbreak in Nigeria.

4. Microscope What is monkeypox?

Orthopoxvirus; now that’s a word you don’t hear too often. Orthopoxviruses are a group of related viruses which infect a range of vertebrate animals. Unlike it’s more infamous cousin, smallpox, many people may not have heard about the monkeypox virus. However, since the global eradication of smallpox, monkeypox has become the most significant member of the Orthopoxviruses.

Monkeypox is a sporadic disease occurring primarily in remote parts of Central and West Africa. The disease was first observed in 1958 in experimental monkeys in Denmark but infections in humans were first described in 1970 in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Diseases like monkeypox which can be passed from animals to humans are called zoonoses.

The monkeypox virus has been reported to be transmitted through contact with animals infected with the virus and different animals such as monkeys, Gambian giant rats, squirrels and rodents have been implicated as important reservoirs of the virus. Infection results from direct contact with the blood, bodily fluids of infected animals. Eating undercooked meat of infected animals is also a risk factor. Its secondary spread through human-to-human transmission is limited but can occur as a result of prolonged exposure to infected persons primarily through respiratory tract secretions but also through contaminated objects. Monkeypox can also be transmitted through the placenta (congenital monkeypox). It causes death in about 1% -10% of affected victims, particularly children.

The period of time between infection and onset of symptoms is usually 5 – 21 days. Symptoms include fever, headache, back pain, muscle ache, lack of energy, and swelling of the lymph node within the first five days. The skin begins to erupt within 1- 3 days after the appearance of fever. The eruption evolves from lesions with flat bases (maculopapules) to vesicles (small fluid-filled blisters), pustules, followed by crusts within 10 days. The lesions affect the face and other parts of the body, including oral mucous membrane, genitalia and eyeball. A distinctive feature of monkeypox from other similar diseases is the appearance of swollen lymph nodes before the appearance of rash.

Currently, there is no treatment or vaccine available although smallpox vaccination was highly effective in preventing monkeypox, however the vaccine is not available after the successful vaccination programme to eradicate smallpox. Monkeypox is self-limiting and may last for about 14 – 21 days with severity depending on the age, exposure and health status of the patient. To confirm suspected cases of monkeypox, laboratory diagnosis is required. Laboratory tests include enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), antigen detection tests, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay and virus isolation by cell culture.

Monkeypox can be contained by placing restrictions on the consumption of risk animals and the immediate cull of potentially infected animals. More importantly, scientists and health professionals also have an important role in increasing community awareness of risk factors and educating people about the measures to be taken to reduce exposure to the virus e.g. maintaining adequate levels of hygiene, handwashing etc.

Nigerian outbreak

Monkeypox is endemic in Africa with most cases occurring in the Congo Basin. The most recent outbreak before the current outbreak in Nigeria was in Central African Republic in 2016, with 26 cases and 2 deaths recorded. The first case in the current outbreak in Nigeria was reported to the Nigerian Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) in September 2017. By the second week of October, of 17 cases reported in Yenagoa in Southern Nigeria, three were confirmed as testing positive for monkeypox infection prompting the NCDC to declare an outbreak in the region. This is the third human monkeypox outbreak in Nigeria, the first two recorded as occurring in 1971 and 1978.

Please report anyone w/ signs such as vesicular rashes on palm & face to a health facility immediately. Avoid self medication. #MonkeyPox pic.twitter.com/N0p62EsvJm

— NCDC (@NCDCgov) October 23, 2017

The correct identification of patients is essential to ensure that appropriate medical treatment can be provided to patients and critically the deployment of efficient control measures. Infection with varicella zoster virus, the causative agent of chicken pox can have a similar presentation as monkeypox and in regions where monkeypox is endemic the two diseases can often be mistaken. An attempt to define specific clinical characteristics associated with laboratory confirmed cases was recently undertaken in a collaborative study between scientists based in the United States Centre for Disease Control and the Ministry of Health in Kinshasa.

Health systems must be able to provide adequate surveillance and means of rapid identification of the virus to contain any outbreak. Significant investment must be made in equipping our diagnostic laboratories and in improving the technical knowledge of our laboratory scientists to increase our capacity and competence to carry out these laboratory confirmations within the country. During the recent outbreak, samples had to be sent to the WHO lab in Dakar for laboratory confirmation of monkeypox and a significant percentage of suspected cases were not monkeypox. Delays between sample collection and confirmation can lead to anxiety and cause unnecessary panic to settle in communities with a high number of cases.

We must also invest in our scientific research institutions to improve our understanding of the virus, particularly the reservoirs of the virus in our country and how the disease spreads in animals. It is notable that further laboratory tests using whole genome sequencing are being conducted at the African Centre for Genomics and Infectious Diseases at Redeemer’s University in Ogun State. Is monkeypox an emerging virus? How related are the viruses circulating in Nigeria to those currently in Congo? Is there co-infection with varicella zoster as noted in other outbreaks? Our research is important in answering these important questions.

The Nigerian Applied Microbiologists group commends the efforts of the Nigerian Centre for Disease Control for the proactive response to the recent monkeypox outbreak, particularly for the establishment of the Emergency Operations Centre and for communicating and engaging with the public using various channels e.g. social media, Whatsapp, TV and radio.

References

CDC (2015).

Nigerian Centre for Disease Control (2017)

Osadebe et al., 2017. Enhancing case definitions for surveillance of human monkeypox in the Democratic Republic of Congo. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases.

Pauli et al., 2010. Orthopox viruses: Infections in Humans. Transfusion Medicine and Hemotherapy.

Vanguard (2017). https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/10/return-monkey-pox-ailment-no-cure-39-years/

WHO, Fact Sheet (2016).

September 15, 2017September 17, 2017 intentionalac Environmental Microbiology, Uncategorized

Composting – A sustainable alternative for waste management

Written by Nneka Joyce Odimba*, Edited by Amara Anyogu

How can we manage waste more efficiently? This question is not unique to local and state governments all over the world. As long as there has been life, there has been waste. The population of Nigeria is increasing, we are building cities and megacities. This will correlate with an increase in the waste we produce. How do we respond to the challenge of Sustainable Development Goal 11 of building Sustainable Cities and Communities? In this article, Joyce explains why composting can be a viable and more sustainable alternative for dealing with waste and the vital role of microorganisms in achieving this – AA.

We need more effective strategies for dealing with waste

Sights as pictured here are all too common in many major cities in Nigeria. Landfill sites are full of refuse generated from different parts of the country. The waste management system of many households relies on the use of incineration. Global urbanization as well as steady rise in human population has resulted in the generation of large quantities of waste.

In Nigeria, more than 32 million tons of solid wastes are generated annually. In Lagos State alone, more than 10,000 tons are generated each day. Of the annual generated waste accounted for, only approximately 20-30% is collected while the rest is disposed indiscriminately leading to blockage of drainage systems and the pollution of water bodies amongst other numerous environmental, health, social and economic challenges (1).

3. Incineration

To overcome these concerns, effective management strategies for these wastes must be adopted. The non-regulated locating of landfills and unselective use of domestic incineration often result in devastating effects on human health, soil health and the atmosphere. These breeding of mosquitoes and rodents, deterioration of soil fertility leading to poor plant growth and more devastating effects such as the depletion of the ozone layer leading associated with acid rain as well as skin exposure to ultraviolet radiation linked to skin cancer in humans. Thus, the need to adopt effective means of waste management and conversion to value added products is of essence.

Why compost waste?

Composting can be described as a process that uses oxygen in the breaking down of decomposable waste products into humus-like end products. Among the various waste treatment options available, composting has gained wide popularity primarily because of the simplicity of the process. Composting does not require technical expertise and can be practiced at a household scale. Other associated benefits include making waste more hygienic, cost effectiveness and the conversion of waste to value-added products (2). Composting serves as a strategy to achieve the goals of ‘green’ chemistry in sustaining and protecting the environment.

Composting is a reliable waste treatment option that could be useful in reduction of some of the negative effects that may arise due to the direct application of organic waste to the soil. This is because it provides sanitized and stabilized products which could be utilized as potential source of organic fertilizers or as amendments to help improve plant growth and health (2). It also reduces the volume of organic substances.

Microbes and composting

Why are microbiologists interested in composting? Because microorganisms play a key role in the process. Composting can occur under natural or controlled conditions and involves the decomposition of organic matter to compost through microbial activities (4). Microorganisms such as Xanthomonas, Pseudomonas and Clostridium can convert waste to compost under suitable environmental conditions. These microorganisms have been isolated from compost and their ability to enhance the nitrogen content of compost has been reported in some scientific studies (5,6,7). Other organisms such as earthworms, millipedes etc are also involved in the composting process.

Due to the important role played by microorganisms in the composting process, different formulations of microorganisms are available commercially for e.g. Effective Microorganism (EM) and Microbial Activator Super LDD 1 (8). The microorganisms present in a compost heap varies according to the environmental conditions (temperature, pH, moisture) and the stage of the composting process (9). The presence of certain microorganisms can be used as a good indicator of the stage and quality of the maturing process (7, 9). Thermophilic Bacillus strains, capable of producing important biological compounds like cellulases and polyphenol oxidases have been isolated from compost materials (11). Cellulases are enzymes that break down complex carbohydrates into simpler sugars. Cellulose is a type of carbohydrate found in plants and is not easily degradable, cellulases can help products like sawdust and cassava chaff. Polyphenol oxidases can help to reduce browning of wine from grapes.

Benefits of composting and a note of caution

Composting is a widely used technology for transforming organic waste to organic manure in many parts of the world. This allows for the recycling of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium that could be utilized for agricultural purposes (12). This makes compost a serious competitor in the fertilizer market (13). The high temperature conditions associated with composting helps to destroy potential disease-causing bacteria present in the waste (14). Compost can be used as a bioremediation option, because it acts as a stabilizer i.e. immobilizes metal in the soil and also as a ‘washing’ agent because it contains certain chemical compounds that can be used in the treatment of soil contaminated with heavy metals (15).

Nevertheless, the benefits of composting procedures can only be achieved if the process is effectively managed (16). Environmental conditions (aeration, moisture, temperature) must be kept optimal and there must be appropriate planning during composting if value-added products are to be obtained. This can only be informed by well conducted research studies.

Going forward…

The government has an important role to play in supporting composting in combination with the use of landfill and other forms of waste management. This can be achieved by setting up programs and initiatives charged with providing loans and grants for composting facilities. This will ensure the sustainability of composting and will in turn create job opportunities for local communities.

Another way the government can support composting is by encouraging organic farming; creating a favourable market to promote the use of composts over traditional soil amendments and soil fertilizers. Policy makers can also support, empower and collaborate with the various research institutions in the country to enable them to develop inexpensive pretreatment processes, for recalcitrant substrates (materials with complex make up such as chicken feathers). For example, genetically modified strains could be used as microbial inoculum to hasten the transformation of organic matter and increase the efficiency of the composting process.

Furthermore, environmental scientists should engage and educate the public on more sustainable methods of waste management informed by their research output.

About the author: Nneka J. Odimba* is an Msc student in Environmental Microbiology at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Her research interests focus on the bioconversion of waste and pollution control. Nneka also serves as the Communications Officer of the Nigerian Applied Microbiologists network.